MENTAL HEALTH STATUS OF BANGLADESHI MIGRANT WORKERS IN MALAYSIA: A POST-PANDEMIC STUDY
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37268/mjphm/vol.25/no.2/art.3006Keywords:
migrant worker, mental health, COVID-19 Pandemic, DASS-21, SelangorAbstract
Worldwide, the COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on people's physical and mental health, and migrant workers are not an exception to this issue. Approximately 30% of the workforce in Malaysia consists of migrant workers. The second-largest group of migrant workers in Malaysia are Bangladeshis, yet little is known about their mental health. This study aims to determine the factors associated with depression, anxiety, and stress among Bangladeshi migrant workers in Selangor, Malaysia, after the COVID-19 pandemic. A cross-sectional study was conducted from March to April 2023 among Bangladeshi migrant workers in Selangor. A self-administered and validated DASS-21 BV questionnaire was used to measure depression, anxiety, and stress. Data on socio-demographic factors, pandemic exposure factors, and pandemic effects on jobs were collected from 386 participants using a convenient sampling (online survey) method. The association of potential risk factors with depression, anxiety, and stress was measured by odds ratio (OR) at a 95% confidence interval using logistic regression analysis. Among the participants, depression, anxiety, and stress levels were 33.9%, 22.8%, and 15.8%, respectively. Perceived bad health conditions, COVID-19 infection, partial vaccination, educational status (university), poor living conditions, working pattern rearrangement, marital status (unmarried), and outstanding debt were significantly associated with increased depression, anxiety, and stress among the participants. The study findings may provide valuable insights into the mental health challenges faced by Bangladeshi migrant workers, which may extend to those of other nationalities. Understanding these results will enable stakeholders to take targeted actions to mitigate mental health issues among migrant workers.
References
Branch LM. ILO Global Estimates on International Migrant Workers, 2018.
Hasan SI, Yee A, Rinaldi A, et al. Prevalence of common mental health issues among migrant workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2021;16(12): e0260221.
Wahab A. The outbreak of Covid-19 in Malaysia: Pushing migrant workers at the margin. Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 2020;2(1).
Ne'Matullah KF, Pek LS, Roslan SA. Investigating Communicative Barriers on Construction Industry Productivity in Malaysia: An Overview. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education. 2021;10(2):476-82.
Htay MNN, Latt SS, Maung KS, et al. Mental Well-Being and Its Associated Factors Among Myanmar Migrant Workers in Penang, Malaysia. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2020; 32(6-7):320-7.
IDS, Immigration Department Statistics in housing and local government 2019.
Loganathan T, Rui D, Ng C-W, Pocock NS. Breaking down the barriers: Understanding migrant workers’ access to healthcare in Malaysia. PloS one. 2019;14(7): e0218669.
Nadim W, AlOtaibi A, Al-Mohaimeed A, et al. Depression among migrant workers in Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia. Journal of affective disorders. 2016 Dec 1; 206:103-8.
Hargreaves S, Rustage K, Nellums LB, et al. Occupational health outcomes among international migrant workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Global Health. 2019;7(7): e872-e82.
Wong LP, Alias H, Md Fuzi AA, et al. Escalating progression of mental health disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from a nationwide survey. PLoS One. 2021;16(3):e0248916.
Choudhari R. COVID 19 pandemic: Mental health challenges of internal migrant workers of India. Asian journal of psychiatry. 2020 Dec 1; 54:102254.
Harjana NPA, Januraga PP, Indrayathi PA, et al. Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among Repatriated Indonesian Migrant Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Front Public Health. 2021; 9:630295.
Spiritus-Beerden E, Verelst A, Devlieger I, et al. Mental Health of Refugees and Migrants during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Experienced Discrimination and Daily Stressors. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(12).
Singh GP. Psychosocial and mental health issues of the migrants amidst COVID-19 pandemic in India: A narrative review. Indian journal of psychological medicine. 2021 Nov;43(6):473-8.
Jalloh MF, Li W, Bunnell RE, Ethier KA, et al. Impact of Ebola experiences and risk perceptions on mental health in Sierra Leone, July 2015. BMJ global health. 2018 Mar 1;3(2): e000471.
Liu X, Kakade M, Fuller CJ, et al. Depression after exposure to stressful events: lessons learned from the severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic. Comprehensive psychiatry. 2012 Jan 1;53(1):15-23.
Galea S, Merchant RM, Lurie N. The mental health consequences of COVID-19 and physical distancing: the need for prevention and early intervention. JAMA internal medicine. 2020 Jun 1;180(6):817-8.
Wong LP, Alias H, Md Fuzi AA, et al. Escalating progression of mental health disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from a nationwide survey. PloS one. 2021;16(3): e0248916.
Perveen A, Hamzah H, Ramlee F, et al. Mental health and coping response among Malaysian adults during COVID-19 pandemic movement control order. Journal of Critical Reviews. 2020;7(18):653-60.
Kumaran VV, Ismail MK, Thinagar S, et al. Mental Health Disorder among Malaysian Universities Students during COVID-19 Pandemic. Asian Journal of University Education. 2022;18(3):735 44.
Ahmed O, Faisal RA, Alim SM, et al. The psychometric properties of the depression anxiety stress scale-21 (DASS-21) Bangla version. Acta Psychologica. 2022 Mar 1; 223:103509.
Low CC. De-commercialization of the labor migration industry in Malaysia. Southeast Asian Studies. 2020 Apr 23;9(1):27-65.
MOH Malaysia. Status COVID-19 di Malaysia (CPRC KKM) by Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2022. Available at: covidnow.moh.gov.my (accessed: 5 November 2022).
Park HY, Park WB, Lee SH, et al. post-traumatic stress disorder and depression of survivors 12 months after the outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome in South Korea. BMC Public Health. 2020 Dec; 20:1-9.
Latif Sarwani SAA, Abdulla KB, Jafar Mandeel MA. Prevalence of Stress, Anxiety and Depression among Expatriate Workers. Bahrain Medical Bulletin. 2013;35(3).
Brooks SK, Webster RK, Smith LE, et al. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet. 2020 Mar 14;395(10227):912-20.
Pandey K, Thurman M, Johnson SD, et al. Mental health issues during and after COVID-19 vaccine era. Brain research bulletin. 2021 Nov 1; 176:161-73.
Saw YE, Tan EY, Buvanaswari P, et al. Mental health of international migrant workers amidst large-scale dormitory outbreaks of COVID-19: A population survey in Singapore. Journal of migration and health. 2021 Jan 1; 4:100062.
Nkosi V, Haman T, Naicker N, et al. Overcrowding and health in two impoverished suburbs of Johannesburg, South Africa. BMC Public Health. 2019; 19:1-8.
Alim SAHM, Kibria SME, Uddin MZ, et al. Translation of DASS 21 into Bangla and validation among medical students. Bangladesh Journal of Psychiatry. 2014;28(2):67-70.
Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour research and therapy. 1995 Mar 1; 33(3):335-43.
Virupaksha HG, Kumar A, Nirmala BP. Migration and mental health: An interface. Journal of natural science, biology, and medicine. 2014 Jul; 5(2):233.
Vindegaard N, Benros ME. COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence. Brain, behavior, and immunity. 2020 Oct 1; 89:531-42.
Chan EY, Cheng CK, Tam GC, et al. Willingness of future A/H7N9 influenza vaccine uptake: a cross-sectional study of Hong Kong community. Vaccine. 2015 Sep 11; 33(38):4737-40.
Rossi A, Panzeri A, Pietrabissa G, et al. The anxiety-buffer hypothesis in the time of COVID-19: When self-esteem protects from the impact of loneliness and fear on anxiety and depression. Frontiers in psychology. 2020 Nov 10; 11:2177.
Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry research. 2020 Jun 1; 288:112954.
Rai B. Social isolation in COVID-19: The impact of loneliness. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(6), 525-527. 2020.
Mohammadkhanizadeh A, Nikbakht F. Investigating the potential mechanisms of depression induced-by COVID-19 infection in patients. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2021 Sep 1; 91:283-7.
Ustun G. Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2021 Feb;67(1):54-63.
Lee AM, Wong JG, McAlonan GM, et al. Stress and psychological distress among SARS survivors 1 year after the outbreak. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 2007; 52(4):233-40.
Ren FF, Guo RJ. Public mental health in post-COVID-19 era. Psychiatria danubina. 2020 Aug 13; 32(2):251-5.
West H, Lawton A, Hossain S, et al. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among temporary foreign workers from Bangladesh. Health Systems & Reform. 2021 Jan 1; 7(1): e1991550.
Bendau A, Plag J, Petzold MB, et al. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and related fears and anxiety. International immunopharmacology. 2021 Aug 1; 97:107724.
Drentea & Reynolds. Neither a borrower nor a lender be: The relative importance of debt and SES for mental health among older adults. Journal of Aging and Health, 24(4), 673-695. 2012.
Richardson T, Elliott P, Roberts R. The relationship between personal unsecured debt and mental and physical health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical psychology review. 2013 Dec 1; 33(8):1148-62.
Schneider D, Harknett K. Consequences of routine work-schedule instability for worker health and well-being. American Sociological Review. 2019 Feb; 84(1):82-114.
Jennifer Liu. Is the job market really getting worse? Available at: https://www.cnbc.com/2022/08/10/is-the-job-market-really-getting-worse-recent-job-seekers-weigh in.html. 2022 (accessed 20 May 2023).
Evans GW, Wells NM, Moch A. Housing and mental health: a review of the evidence and a methodological and conceptual critique. Journal of social issues. 2003 Jul; 59(3):475-500.
Stansfeld SA, Matheson MP. Noise pollution: non-auditory effects on health. British medical bulletin. 2003 Dec 1; 68(1):243-57.
Trougakos JP, Chawla N, McCarthy JM. Working in a pandemic: Exploring the impact of COVID-19 health anxiety on work, family, and health outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2020 Nov; 105(11):1234.
Tan W, Hao F, McIntyre RS, et al. Is returning to work during the COVID-19 pandemic stressful? A study on immediate mental health status and psychoneuroimmunity prevention measures of Chinese workforce. Brain, behavior, and immunity. 2020 Jul 1; 87:84-92.
UNDP, United Nations Development Programme (2020). COVID-19 and Human Development: Assessing Crisis, Envisioning the Recovery. Retrieved http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/covid-19_and_human_development_0.pdf (accessed 23 May 2023).
