CHARACTERISTICS, DETECTION AND TYPING METHODS OF COMMUNITY ACQUIRED METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS (CA-MRSA) – A REVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37268/mjphm/vol.17/no.3/art.231Keywords:
CA-MRSA, prevalence, transmission, PVL toxin, SCCmec, spa typing, PFGE, MLSTAbstract
Staphylococcus aureus aregram positive cocci which colonizethe skin and mucous membranes particularly the anterior nares. Prevalence of nosocomial infections associated with methicillin resistant S. aureus have been reported in hospitals (HA-MRSA) for over five decades. Recently,community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) has emerged as a cause of skin and soft tissue infections in healthy individuals. These strains are sensitive to antimicrobials, carry genes for Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) toxin and belong to the staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCC) mec type IV or V. The suspected mode of transmission involves close contact with carriers leading to skin or nasal colonization that resultin subsequent active infection. Molecular typing is used to determine the mode of transmission of CA-MRSA in the community.General typing methods such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and specific methods for Staphylococci such as SCCmec typing and spa typing have the capability to characterize bacterial chromosomes and mobile genetic elements. Combination of these molecular typing methods is necessary as each method has its own advantages with respect to discriminatory power, rapidity, cost effectiveness, reproducibility, and ease of performance.
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3. Panlilio AL, Culver DH, Gaynes RP, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in US hospitals, 1975–1991. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13(10):582-86.
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5. Sowash MG, Uhlemann AC. Community- associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus case studies. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1085:25-69.
6. Herold BC, Immergluck LC, Maranan MC, et al. Community-acquired methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified predisposing risk. JAMA 1998; 279:593–98.
7. O’Brien FG, Lim TT, Chong FN, et al. Diversity among community isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Australia. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42(7):3185-90.
8. Millar BC, Loughrey A, Elborn JS, Moore JE. Proposed definitions of community- associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA). J Hosp Infect 2007; 67(2):109-13.
9. Udo EE, Pearman JW, Grubb WB. Genetic analysis of community isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Western Australia. J Hosp Infect 1993;25(2):97-108.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Four pediatric deaths from community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus—Minnesota and North Dakota, 1997-1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999;48(32):707-10.
11. Baggett HC, Hennessy TW, Rudolph K, et al. Community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus associated with antibiotic use and the cytotoxin Panton- Valentine leukocidin during a furunculosis outbreak in rural Alaska. J Infect Dis 2004;189(9):1565-73.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Community-associated methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in Pacific Islanders-Hawaii, 2001-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53(33):767-70.
13. Song JH, Hsueh PR, Chung DR, et al. Spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus between the community and the hospitals in Asian countries: an ANSORP study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011;66(5):1061-69.
14. Huang YC, Ho CF, Chen CJ, Su LH, Lin TY. Comparative molecular analysis of community?associated and healthcare? associated methicillin?resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from children in northern Taiwan. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008;14(12):1167-72.
15. Sam IC, Kahar-Bador M, Chan YF, Loong SK, Ghazali FMN. Multisensitive community- acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in Malaysia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2008;62(4):437-39.
16. Rashid ZZ, Bahari N, Othman A, et al. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a Malaysian tertiary centre. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2013;44(1):104-08.
17. Ghaznavi-Rad E, Shamsudin MN, Sekawi Z, et al. Predominance and emergence of clones of hospital-acquired methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Malaysia. J Clin Microbiol 2010;48(3):867-72.
18. Ahmad N, Ruzan IN, Ghani MKA, et al. Characteristics of community and hospital acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying SCCmec type IV isolated in Malaysia. J Med Microbiol 2009;58(9):1213-18.
19. Chen CJ, Hsueh PR, Su LH, et al. Change in the molecular epidemiology of methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections in Taiwan. Diagn Microbiol Infectious Dis 2009;65(2):199-01.
20. Pannaraj PS, Hulten KG, Gonzalez BE, Mason EO, Kaplan SL. Infective pyomyositis and myositis in children in the era of community-acquired, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43(8):953-60.
21. Adem PV, Montgomery CP, Husain AN, et al. Staphylococcus aureus sepsis and the Waterhouse–Friderichsen syndrome in children. N Engl J Med 2005;353(12):1245- 51.
22. Miller LG, Perdreau-Remington F, Rieg G, et al. Necrotizing fasciitis caused by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Los Angeles. N Engl J Med 2005;352(14):1445-53.
23. Kravitz GR, Dries DJ, Peterson ML, Schlievert PM. Purpura fulminans due to Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40(7):941-47.
24. Shopsin B, Kreiswirth BN. Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7(2):323-26.
25. Vandenesch F, Naimi T, Enright MC, et al. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton- Valentine leukocidin genes: worldwide emergence. Emerg Infect Dis 2003;9(8):978-84.
26. Boyle-Vavra S, Daum RS. Community- acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: the role of Panton– Valentine leukocidin. Lab Invest 2007;87(1):3-9.
27. Katayama Y, Ito T, Hiramatsu K. A new class of genetic element, staphylococcus cassette chromosome mec, encodes methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44(6):1549-55.
28. Katayama Y, Ito T, Hiramatsu K. Genetic organization of the chromosome region surrounding mecA in clinical staphylococcal strains: role of IS431-mediated mecI deletion in expression of resistance in mecA-carrying, low-level methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus haemolyticus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45(7):1955-63.
29. IWG-SCC. International Working Group on the Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome elements [cited 2016 May 17]. Available from: www.SCCmec.org/Pages/SCC_TypesEN.ht ml
30. Ito T, Okuma K, Ma XX, Yuzawa H, Hiramatsu K. Insights on antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus from its whole genome: genomic island SCC. Drug Resist Updat 2003;6(1):41-52.
31. Lina G, Piémont Y, Godail-Gamot F, et al. Involvement of Panton-Valentine leukocidin—producing Staphylococcus aureus in primary skin infections and pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29(5):1128-32.
32. Gillet Y, Issartel B, Vanhems P, et al. Association between Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying gene for Panton-Valentine leukocidin and highly lethal necrotising pneumonia in young immunocompetent patients. Lancet 2002;359(9308):753-59.
33. Gonzalez BE, Martinez-Aguilar G, Hulten KG, et al. Severe staphylococcal sepsis in adolescents in the era of community- acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Pediatrics 2005;115(3):642-48.
34. Bocchini CE, Hulten KG, Mason EO, et al. Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes are associated with enhanced inflammatory response and local disease in acute hematogenous Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis in children. Pediatrics 2006;117(2):433-40.
35. Gerald WT. Medical Importance of the Normal Microform. 1st ed. US: Springer;1999.
36. Williams RE. Skin and nose carriage of bacteriophage types of Staph aureus. J Pathol Bacteriol 1946;58:259-68.
37. Martin TD, Whitehead JE. Carriage of penicillin-resistant Staph. pyogenes in healthy adults. Br Med J 1949;1(4595):173- 75.
38. Guinan ME, Dan BB, Guidotti RJ, et al. Vaginal colonization with Staphylococcus aureus in healthy women: a review of four studies. Ann Intern Med 1982; 96:944-47.
39. Ridley M. Perineal carriage of Staph. aureus. Br Med J 1959;1(5117):270-73.
40. Jacobs SI, Williamson GM, Willis AT. Nasal abnormality and the carrier rate of Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Pathol 1961; 14:519-21.
41. Noble WC, Williams RE, Jevons MP, Shooter RA. Some aspects of nasal carriage of staphylococci. J Clin Pathol 1964; 17:79- 83.
42. Kluytmans J, Van Belkum A, Verbrugh H. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: epidemiology, underlying mechanisms, and associated risks. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997; 10(3):505-20.
43. Lee J, Sung JY, Kim YM, et al. Molecular characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus obtained from the anterior nares of healthy Korean children attending daycare centers. Int J Infect Dis 2011;15(8): e558-63.
44. Ho PL, Chiu SS, Chan MY, et al. Molecular epidemiology and nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin- resistant S. aureus among young children attending day care centers and kindergartens in Hong Kong. J Infect 2012;64(5):500-06.
45. Huang YC, Hwang KP, Chen PY, Chen CJ, Lin TY. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization among Taiwanese children in 2005 and 2006. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45(12):3992-95.
46. Esperson F, Clemmensen I. Isolation of a fibronectin-binding protein from Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 1982;37(2):526-31.
47. Aly R, Shinefield HR, Litz C, Maibach HI. Role of teichoic acid in the binding of Staphylococcus aureus to nasal epithelial cells. J Infect Dis 1980;141(4):463-65.
48. Light IJ, Sutherland JM, Cochran ML, Sutorius J. Ecologic relation between Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas in a nursery population: Another example of bacterial interference. N Engl J Med 1968;278(23):1243-47.
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2017-12-08
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Lia Natasha Amit, Fong Siew Moy, & Daisy Vanitha John. (2017). CHARACTERISTICS, DETECTION AND TYPING METHODS OF COMMUNITY ACQUIRED METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS (CA-MRSA) – A REVIEW. Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine, 17(3), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.37268/mjphm/vol.17/no.3/art.231
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